Types of Long Term MemoryFlashcards - AQA Psychology

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Types of Long Term Memory

A-Level AQA Psychology

This flashcard pack explores various aspects of memory and cognition, covering long-term memory types such as episodic, semantic, and procedural memories. It delves into the Working Memory Model, including its components and supporting evidence. The pack also examines theories of memory interference, context-dependent forgetting, and state-dependent forgetting. In addition, it addresses the complexities of eyewitness testimony, the influence of leading questions, post-event discussion, and the effects of anxiety on recall, as well as the Cognitive Interview technique and its enhancements and limitations.

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"Describe episodic memory."	"Episodic memory is the memory of autobiographical events, including times, places, associated emotions, and other contextual knowledge. These memories can be explicitly stated and are 'time stamped' and 'declarative', meaning you know when the memory was made and you have to consciously 'search' for the memory."
"Define semantic memory."	"Semantic memory, sometimes called generic memory, refers to the memory of meanings, understandings, and other concept-based knowledge. It underlies the conscious recollection of factual information and general knowledge about the world. These memories are not usually time-stamped and are declarative."
"What is procedural memory?"	"Procedural memory is the memory for the performance of particular types of action or skill. It guides the processes we perform and most frequently resides below the level of conscious awareness. These memories are automatically retrieved and utilised for the execution of integrated procedures involved in both cognitive and motor skills. They are not usually time-stamped and are non-declarative (implicit)."
"How does the case of Clive Wearing support the existence of different types of long-term memory?"	"Following a brain infection, Clive Wearing's procedural memory remained intact, but his episodic memory was severely damaged. This suggests that there are different stores for different types of long-term memory."
"Describe the components of the Working Memory Model."	"The Working Memory Model includes the Central Executive, which allocates 'slave' systems to tasks; the Phonological Loop, which deals with auditory information; the Visuospatial Sketchpad, which stores visual and spatial information; and the Episodic Buffer, which integrates visual, spatial, and verbal information and maintains a sense of time sequencing."
"What evidence supports the Working Memory Model?"	"The study of a patient named KF supports the Working Memory Model. His phonological loop appeared damaged, but his visuo-spatial sketchpad worked fine. Additionally, Baddeley et al (1975) found that when participants had to perform two tasks simultaneously using the same system, they found it very difficult, but when performing two tasks using different systems, performance was unaffected."
"Describe the concept of Interference theory in Long Term Memory."	"Interference theory suggests that information in Long Term Memory conflicts with each other, resulting in a distortion or blocking of a memory. There are two types of interference: Proactive, when an older memory interferes with a newer one, and Retroactive, when a newer memory interferes with an older one."
"How does the similarity of information affect interference in memory recall?"	"The effect of the similarity of information was shown by McGeoch and McDonald (1931) who found that recall of the first list was worse when the second set of information was more similar. This shows that interference becomes more likely the more similar the information is."
"Define the Encoding specificity principle."	"The Encoding specificity principle, suggested by Tulving, states that when memories are created, associated cues are stored at the same time. If these cues are not present when trying to recall the information, forgetting will take place."
"Explain the concept of Context-dependent forgetting."	"Context-dependent forgetting refers to the phenomenon where the external environment differs between learning and recall. Conditions in which the environment of learning matched that of recall result in a higher recall rate."
"What is State-dependent forgetting?"	"State-dependent forgetting refers to the phenomenon where the internal state of the person (e.g. alertness) differs between learning and recall. Conditions in which the state of learning matched that of recall result in a significantly higher recall rate."
"What is the role of the central executive in the Working Memory Model?"	"The central executive in the Working Memory Model plays a role in paying attention and allocating resources. However, it is not known exactly how it functions, leading to criticism that the Working Memory Model is lacking in clarity."
"What is Eyewitness testimony (EWT)?"	"Eyewitness testimony (EWT) is the ability of people to remember details of events they have seen, such as crimes or accidents."
"Describe the concept of leading questions in the context of eyewitness testimony."	"Leading questions are those that, by their wording or form, suggest the desired answer. In the context of eyewitness testimony, the phrasing of a question can alter a person's recall of an event. For example, using different verbs such as 'hit', 'smashed', 'bumped', 'contacted', or 'collided' in a question about a car accident can influence the speed estimate given by the witness."
"Define the response-bias explanation in the context of eyewitness testimony."	"The response-bias explanation suggests that the wording of a question does not alter the actual memory of the event, but influences how the witness chooses to answer. For example, a witness might estimate a higher speed if the verb 'smashed' is used in the question, not because their memory of the event has changed, but because the phrasing of the question suggests a higher speed."
"Explain the substitution explanation in the context of eyewitness testimony."	"The substitution explanation suggests that the wording of a question can actually change a witness's memory of an event. For example, if a witness is asked about seeing broken glass in a car accident when there was none, they might actually start to remember seeing it if the verb 'smashed' was used in the question."
"How does post-event discussion affect eyewitness testimony?"	"Post-event discussion can alter or distort a witness's memory of an event. Witnesses may discuss what they have seen with others, and this can result in them incorporating aspects of the event that they did not actually see into their own memory. This can lead to inaccurate recall of the event."
"Describe the effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony."	"Anxiety can have both positive and negative effects on eyewitness testimony. High levels of stress can lead to more accurate recall of details, as suggested by Yuille and Cutshall's study of a real-life robbery. However, Johnson and Scott's study suggests that high anxiety can also lead to less accurate recall, as participants were less accurate when the situation was made more stressful by the presence of a weapon."
"What are the potential real-world applications of research into eyewitness testimony?"	"The findings from research into eyewitness testimony can be used to improve the way questions are asked in police interviews. Understanding how leading questions, response bias, substitution, and post-event discussion can affect a witness's recall can help in formulating questions that are less likely to distort the witness's memory of the event."
"Describe the Yerkes-Dodson law/curve in relation to anxiety and recall."	"The Yerkes-Dodson law suggests that a moderate amount of anxiety can have a positive effect on recall, but once the level of anxiety gets too high, performance will decline."
"Define the Cognitive Interview technique developed by Fisher and Geiselman."	"The Cognitive Interview is a method developed to improve the accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony (EWT). It includes four elements: reporting everything, reinstating the context, reversing the order of recall, and changing the perspective."
"How does the 'enhanced cognitive interview' differ from the original Cognitive Interview?"	"The enhanced cognitive interview, developed in 1987, added further elements to the Cognitive Interview, focusing on the dynamic between the interviewer and witness. For example, it includes guidelines on when to maintain eye contact and for how long, asking open questions, and speaking slowly."
"What are the potential limitations of the Cognitive Interview technique?"	"The Cognitive Interview is very time-consuming, and many police forces may not have the resources to properly use it, limiting its usefulness as an interview technique. Additionally, many variations of the Cognitive Interview are used by police forces, making it hard to accurately assess the effectiveness of the technique."
"Do the 'report everything' and 'reinstate the context' elements of the Cognitive Interview technique prove useful according to Milne and Bull (2002)?"	"Yes, Milne and Bull (2002) found that the Cognitive Interview does lead to more information being reported, especially with the 'report everything' and 'reinstate the context' elements."
"What is the 'tunnel effect' in the context of Eye Witness Testimony (EWT)?"	"The 'tunnel effect' refers to the phenomenon where witnesses focus on a source of anxiety, such as a weapon, and do not concentrate on any other details."
"What are the ethical considerations when creating anxiety for the purpose of testing its effect on Eye Witness Testimony (EWT)?"	"Creating anxiety for the purpose of testing this as a variable creates ethical issues, making the effect of anxiety on EWT hard to study in a controlled environment."

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