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Inferential Testing

A-Level AQA Psychology

This pack of flashcards encompasses a comprehensive overview of statistical testing in psychological research. It covers the definitions, significance levels, error types, and the selection process for different statistical tests. Additionally, it explains various statistical methods such as the Sign Test, Mann-Whitney test, Wilcoxon test, t-tests, Spearman's rho, Pearson's r, and Chi-Squared test, including their application, interpretation of results, and critical values. It also touches on designing a study and understanding hypotheses.

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"Define Statistical Testing."	"Statistical tests are used to determine whether the result of an experiment is significant, statistically speaking. They use a probability level set by the researcher to determine if the results occurred due to chance factors or the variable being tested."
"What is the significance of a 5% (or 0.05) probability level in statistical testing?"	"A 5% (or 0.05) probability level means that there is only a 5% (or less) probability that the results occurred due to chance factors, so the result is highly likely to have happened due to the variable being tested. It is therefore a statistically significant result."
"Describe the process of the Sign Test."	"The Sign Test is used when investigating a difference using a repeated measures design, and the data are nominal. The data is converted to nominal data, the pluses and minuses are added up, the sum of the less frequent sign is used as ‘S’, and the calculated value (S) is compared to a table of critical values."
"What does it mean if the calculated value (S) in the Sign Test is less than the critical value?"	"If the calculated value (S) is less than the critical value, the result is significant. This means that the variable being tested does have a significant effect on the outcome."
"Define Probability and Significance in the context of statistical testing."	"Probability and significance in statistical testing refer to the likelihood that the results of an experiment occurred due to the variable being tested, rather than chance. Statistical tests are used to accept either the alternative/experimental hypothesis (predicting there will be a difference or association) or the null hypothesis (predicting there will be no difference or no association)."
"Define the significance level in psychological research."	"The significance level is the confidence with which the alternative or null hypothesis can be accepted. In psychology, a significance level of 0.05 or 5% is generally used, meaning there is a 95% probability that the results of the experiment are significant."
"Describe the role of statistical tables and critical values in inferential testing."	"Statistical tables and critical values are used to determine whether the result of a statistical test is significant or not. The observed value from the test is compared to a critical value. If the test has an 'r' in the name, the observed value must be equal to or greater than the critical value for significance. If not, the observed value must be equal to or less than the critical value."
"Explain what a Type I error is in psychological research."	"A Type I error occurs when the alternative/experimental hypothesis is mistakenly accepted, and the null hypothesis is mistakenly rejected. This means the researcher concludes there is a significant difference between the groups, when in reality there isn't. The chance of this happening in psychological research is usually 5%, due to the conventional significance level of 0.05."
"Explain what a Type II error is in psychological research."	"A Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is mistakenly accepted, and the alternative/experimental hypothesis is mistakenly rejected. This means the researcher concludes there is not a significant difference between the groups, when in reality there is. Type II errors are more likely when the significance level is too strict, for example, 1% (0.01)."
"What factors affect the choice of statistical test in psychological research?"	"Three factors affect the choice of statistical test: whether the researcher is investigating a difference or correlation, the experimental design (related or unrelated), and the level of measurement of the data (nominal, ordinal, or interval)."
"Describe the Mann-Whitney statistical test."	"The Mann-Whitney test is used when looking for a difference, using an independent groups design, and the data is ordinal. For example, it could be used to investigate whether there is a difference in the amount of chocolate chips found in cookies of two different brands."
"Define the Wilcoxon test and provide an example of its use."	"The Wilcoxon test is used when looking for a difference, using a repeated measures design, and the data is ordinal. An example of its use is a study investigating whether smiling while watching cartoons affects the perceived humor of the cartoons. Participants watched a cartoon while frowning and then while smiling, rating the humor each time. The alternative hypothesis was that there would be a difference in humor ratings between the two conditions."
"What does it mean if the calculated value of T in a Wilcoxon test is greater than the critical value?"	"If the calculated value of T is greater than the critical value in a Wilcoxon test, the results are not significant at the chosen level, so the alternative hypothesis must be rejected, and the null hypothesis accepted."
"Describe the unrelated t-test and give an example of its application."	"The unrelated t-test is used when looking for a difference, using an independent groups design, and the data is interval. An example of its use is a study investigating whether eating chocolate affects the time taken to solve a puzzle. Half of the participants ate a chocolate bar before completing a wordsearch, and half completed the wordsearch without eating the chocolate. The alternative hypothesis was that there would be a difference in the time taken to complete a wordsearch after eating a chocolate bar compared to not eating a chocolate bar."
"What does it mean if the calculated value of t in an unrelated t-test is less than the critical value?"	"If the calculated value of t is less than the critical value in an unrelated t-test, the results are not significant at the chosen level, so the alternative hypothesis must be rejected, and the null hypothesis accepted."
"Define the related t-test and provide an example of its use."	"The related t-test is used when looking for a difference, using a repeated measures design, and the data is interval. An example of its use is a study investigating whether heart rate decreases following meditation. Participants’ heart rates were measured before and after a 15-minute meditation session. The alternative hypothesis was that there would be a reduction in heart rate following a meditation session."
"Describe the significance of a t-test in research."	"A t-test is used in research to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two groups. The calculated value of 't' must be equal to or more than the critical value for significance to be shown."
"Define Spearman’s rho and its use in research."	"Spearman’s rho is a statistical test used when looking for a correlation, and the data of one or both of the co-variables is ordinal or interval level. The calculated value of 'rho' must be equal to or more than the critical value for significance to be shown."
"Explain the use of Pearson’s r in research."	"Pearson’s r is a statistical test used when looking for a correlation, and the data of one or both of the co-variables is interval level. The calculated value of 'r' must be equal to or more than the critical value for significance to be shown."
"What is the Chi-Squared test used for in research?"	"The Chi-Squared test is used when looking for a difference or association, and the data is nominal level (in categories). It helps to determine if there is a significant association between two categorical variables."
"How is the 'degrees of freedom' calculated in a Pearson’s r statistical test?"	"In a Pearson’s r statistical test, the degrees of freedom (df) is calculated by subtracting 2 from the total number of participants."
"What does a negative result in a Pearson’s r statistical test indicate?"	"A negative result in a Pearson’s r statistical test indicates a significant negative correlation, rather than a positive one, as predicted by the alternative hypothesis."
"Define the term 'degrees of freedom' in the context of a Chi-Squared statistical test."	"Degrees of freedom refers to the number of values in a statistical calculation that are free to vary. In a Chi-Squared test, it is calculated as (rows-1) x (columns -1)."
"How is the significance of a Chi-Squared test determined?"	"The significance of a Chi-Squared test is determined by comparing the calculated value of χ2 to the critical value from a table. If the calculated value is equal to or more than the critical value, the results are significant."
"What are the key components to consider when designing a study?"	"Key components include: stating the hypothesis, defining the independent and dependent variables, choosing the experimental design, selecting the sample, deciding on the experimental method and procedure, listing the materials needed, and stating the descriptive statistics to be used."
"What is the difference between a directional and a non-directional hypothesis?"	"A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of the effect (e.g., 'Group A will score higher than Group B'), while a non-directional hypothesis only predicts that there will be a difference, without specifying the direction."
"What is a null hypothesis in a study?"	"A null hypothesis is a statement that there is no significant difference between specified populations, any observed difference being due to sampling or experimental error."
"What is an extraneous variable in a study?"	"An extraneous variable is anything that could unintentionally influence the outcome of an experiment. It's not the variable being studied and can add error or confusion to the results if not controlled."

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